{"id":46912,"date":"2011-05-02T11:48:22","date_gmt":"2011-05-02T09:48:22","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/www.sorosoro.org\/?page_id=46912"},"modified":"2011-05-21T02:12:59","modified_gmt":"2011-05-21T00:12:59","slug":"xokleng","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/www.sorosoro.org\/en\/xokleng\/","title":{"rendered":"Xokleng"},"content":{"rendered":"

Data collected by UNICEF<\/em><\/p>\n

Data on Xokleng<\/h5>\n

Alternative names<\/strong>: Lakla\u00f1o, Bugres, Botocudos, Aweikoma, Xokr\u00e9n, Santa Catarina Kaingang, Aweikoma-Kaingang.<\/p>\n

Xokleng is allegedly regarded by the community members as the name \u00ab given by the white \u00bb, the self-designation being \u00ab Lakla\u00f1o \u00bb. Many other names have been given to this ethnic group, though most of them are now obsolete.<\/em><\/p>\n

Classification<\/strong>: Macro-J\u00ea<\/a>, J\u00ea languages, Southern J\u00ea branch.<\/p>\n

We hereby follow Rodrigues (1999).<\/p>\n

Some sources prior to the 1960s considered Xokleng to be a Kaingang dialect. They\u2019re now usually considered as two distinct, yet close, languages.<\/em><\/p>\n

Geographic area<\/strong>: Brazil, state of Santa Catarina.<\/p>\n

Most Xokleng live on the \u00ab Terra Indigena<\/em> \u00bb (TI) of Ibirama, located along Rio Herc\u00edlio and Rio Plate; a territory they share with Mby\u00e1, \u00d1andeva (who speak Tupi-Guarani languages<\/a>) and Kaingang people.<\/p>\n

Some twenty other families live on the outskirts of the cities of Blumenau, Joinville and Itaja\u00ed.<\/p>\n

Number of speakers<\/strong>:<\/p>\n

The 2004 FUNASA census accounts for an \u00ab ethnic \u00bb population of 887.<\/p>\n

There is no precise account of the number of speakers at this point; UNESCO estimates \u00ab no more than 100 speakers \u00bb of Xokleng.<\/p>\n

Language status<\/strong>: No official status.<\/p>\n

According to Linguam\u00f3n<\/em>: \u00ab Portuguese is the only official language of Brazil. The linguistic legislation operative for the other languages only applies to the educational sphere, and especially bilingual and cross-cultural primary education (exclusively in the indigenous communities). But in reality there are only few qualified bilingual educators. \u00bb<\/p>\n

Vitality & transmission<\/strong>:<\/p>\n

Xokleng is a \u00ab critically endangered \u00bb language according to UNESCO (stage 4 on a scale of 5); in other words, it is nearly extinct.<\/p>\n

As mentioned above, it is hard to account for a precise number of Xokleng native speakers, but chances are they\u2019re all bilingual and aged. The younger ones, 30 and under, are all natives of Portuguese and no longer speak the ancestral language.<\/p>\n

\n

Historical and ethnographic observations<\/h5>\n

It is very likely that the Kaingang and Xokleng shared a common origin before growing apart in the course of the last centuries. They were traditionally semi-nomadic hunters-gatherers, and did not practice agriculture.<\/p>\n

The traditional Kaingang and Xokleng territory used to be located in the vast highlands of today\u2019s southern Brazil. A first route was open in 1728 to link the provinces of Rio Grande do Sul and S\u00e3o Paulo, running across the territory of the South J\u00ea populations.<\/p>\n

The route allowed western agriculture to settle in the region, reducing Xokleng living space and resources. The araucaria pine tree, which was a vital resource for the Xokleng, was consistently exploited by the colonists; a deprivation of resource that caused the first armed conflicts between western colonists and the indigenous populations, but also among the indigenous groups themselves.<\/p>\n

The extension of the Rio Grande do Sul colonial territory at the beginning of the 19th century forced the Xokleng to flee towards today\u2019s Santa Catarina.<\/p>\n

The Xokleng, as were the Kaingang and the other J\u00ea populations, were traditionally organized as a dualistic society. The great migrations and inner conflicts over resources brought this system to an end. The surviving Xokleng then separated into three factions, out of which only the lakla\u00f1o <\/em>faction still exists nowadays.<\/p>\n

In the second half of the 19th century, the colonial spread reached the Xokleng territories of Santa Catarina, causing another cycle of violent conflict. The state of Brazil then allowed colonists to gather into bugreiros \u00ab Indian hunter \u00bb brigades, with the barely hidden objective of exterminating all those described as \u00ab soulless primitives \u00bb, and considered as impediments to progress. These bugreiros are largely responsible for the extinction, in just a few years, of two out of the three Xokleng factions.<\/p>\n

And what militias could not finish, diseases took care of. Between 1914, year of the first \u2013 peaceful \u2013 contact with the colonial society, and 1935, two thirds of the surviving Xokleng population died from the epidemics carried by the \u00ab white \u00bb, who had forced them to sedentarize in \u00ab Indian Stations \u00bb: more or less reservations created by the government to \u00ab pacify \u00bb indigenous populations.<\/p>\n

Besides the exposure to diseases, sedentarization caused an acculturation of the Xokleng people, who gave up a large part of their social rites (labial perforation of young men, cremation of the deceased, etc.) and traditional religious practices. Most of them are now Pentecostalists.<\/p>\n

Mixed marriage with the white, the Guarani, and the Cafuzos <\/em>(of mixed origins), generated profound changes within the Xokleng society along these 90 last years. Especially when the North dam was built.<\/p>\n

The construction of this dam in the 1970s flooded a significant part of the area home to Xokleng villages, forcing the Ibirama TI population to yet another exile towards another area, limited in space and poor in resource.<\/p>\n

Up to the 1960s, the Ibirama TI (known as the \u00abPosto Duque de Caxias \u00bb until 1975) consisted in forests that massive exploitation progressively swept away. There was nothing left of it in the 1980s, depriving the TI populations of one of their main sources of livelihood. The Xokleng populations began to suffer malnutrition.<\/p>\n

Nowadays the men often work as daily farm hand and women as housemaids. A few families own small farms inside the TI. A movement claiming restitution of the lost territories has been set in motion these past few years, and one can only hope, if it comes together, that it\u2019ll allow the Xokleng to establish a new, economically, culturally and socially united society.<\/p>\n

For more information on the Xokleng, please refer to the section devoted to them on the indispensable Povos Ind\u00edgenas no Brasil<\/a><\/em> website (Portuguese\/English)<\/p>\n

\n

Sources<\/h5>\n

De Castro Alves, Fl\u00e1via (2010). Brasil no Amaz\u00f3nico<\/em>. In \u00ab Atlas socioling\u00fc\u00edstico de pueblos ind\u00edgenas en Am\u00e9rica Latina<\/a> \u00bb, UNICEF. Tome 1, pp 265-280.<\/p>\n

Fabre, Alain. 2005. Diccionario etnoling\u00fc\u00edstico y gu\u00eda bibliogr\u00e1fica de los pueblos ind\u00edgenas sudamericanos<\/em>. Available online<\/a> [28\/04\/2011]<\/p>\n

\n

Online sources<\/h5>\n

Data collected by UNICEF on Xokleng<\/a> [28\/04\/2011]<\/p>\n

Pages devoted to Xokleng on the Povos Ind\u00edgenas no Brasil website<\/a> [28\/04\/2011]<\/p>\n

Data collected by UNESCO on Xokleng<\/a> [28\/04\/2011]<\/p>\n

Ethnologue.com<\/em> page on Xokleng<\/a><\/p>\n

\n

Additional bibliography<\/h5>\n

Bubltitz, Terezinha 1994. An\u00e1lise fonol\u00f3gica preliminar da l\u00edngua Xokleng<\/em>. Disserta\u00e7\u00e3o de Mestrado. Bras\u00edlia: UnB.<\/p>\n

Mullen, P. – P. Vandresen 1986. O biling\u00fcismo xokleng\/portugu\u00eas no Posto Duque de Caixas<\/em>. En: IV Encontro de varia\u00e7\u00e3o ling\u00fcistica e de biling\u00fcismo na regi\u00e3o sul<\/em>. Anais: 115-134. Porto Alegre: Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul.<\/p>\n

M\u00fcller, Salvio Alexandre 1985. Efeitos desagregadores da constru\u00e7\u00e3o da barragem de Ibirama sobre a comunidade ind\u00edgena<\/em>. Disserta\u00e7\u00e3o de Mestrado. Florian\u00f3polis: UFSC.<\/p>\n

Rodrigues, Ayron D. (1999). \u00ab Macro-J\u00ea \u00bb In R.M.W. Dixon and Alexandra Y.Aikhenvald, (eds) The Amazonian languages<\/em>, Cambridge University Press.<\/p>\n

Wiik, Fl\u00e1vio Braune, 1998. Doen\u00e7as e tranforma\u00e7\u00e3o sociocultural: epidemias, corporalidade e pr\u00e1xis entre os \u00edndios Xokleng do sul do Brasil<\/em>. Revista de Divulga\u00e7\u00e3o Cultural, 20\/64. Blumenau: Editora da FURB.<\/p>\n

\n

Refer to Atlas socioling\u00fc\u00edstico de pueblos ind\u00edgenas en Am\u00e9rica Latina<\/a> and Fabre (2005)<\/a> for a more comprehensive bibliography.<\/p>\n

\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

Data collected by UNICEF Data on Xokleng Alternative names: Lakla\u00f1o, Bugres, Botocudos, Aweikoma, Xokr\u00e9n, Santa Catarina Kaingang, Aweikoma-Kaingang. Xokleng is allegedly regarded by the community members as the name \u00ab given by the white \u00bb, the self-designation being \u00ab Lakla\u00f1o \u00bb. Many other names have been given to this ethnic group, though most of them […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":18,"featured_media":0,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"open","template":"","meta":{"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-46912","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry"],"yoast_head":"\nXokleng - Sorosoro<\/title>\n<meta name=\"robots\" content=\"index, follow, max-snippet:-1, max-image-preview:large, max-video-preview:-1\" \/>\n<link rel=\"canonical\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sorosoro.org\/en\/xokleng\/\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:locale\" content=\"en_US\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:type\" content=\"article\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:title\" content=\"Xokleng - Sorosoro\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:description\" content=\"Data collected by UNICEF Data on Xokleng Alternative names: Lakla\u00f1o, Bugres, Botocudos, Aweikoma, Xokr\u00e9n, Santa Catarina Kaingang, Aweikoma-Kaingang. Xokleng is allegedly regarded by the community members as the name \u00ab given by the white \u00bb, the self-designation being \u00ab Lakla\u00f1o \u00bb. 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